From Clay Tokens to Writing

Writing was invented independently in several parts of the world, but the earliest known system developed in Mesopotamia, in what is now Iraq, around 3200 BCE. One influential theory, proposed by the archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat, suggests that writing grew out of a much older practice: keeping track of goods with small clay objects called tokens.

[A] For thousands of years, farmers and traders in the region used tokens of different shapes to stand for specific goods, such as a jar of oil or a measure of grain. [B] To record an agreement, the tokens could be sealed inside a hollow clay ball. [C] Because the ball had to be broken to check what was inside, people began pressing the tokens into its soft surface before sealing it, which left marks that showed the contents. [D]

Eventually, people realized that the marks alone were enough, and the tokens themselves became unnecessary. Scribes began drawing signs on flat clay tablets with a pointed tool. Over time, these signs came to represent not only objects and numbers but also the sounds of the spoken language, which allowed writers to record names, laws, and stories.